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Random Access A random access memory (RAM) chip stores binary data in arrays The data can be addressed (selected) from anywhere in the matrix Data is easily changed and stored back in RAM, in whole or in part A RAM chip is sometimes called a read/write memory An example of the use of RAM is a word-processing computer file that you are actively working on This paragraph, this chapter, and in fact the whole text of this book was written in semiconductor RAM in small sections before being incrementally stored on the computer hard drive, and ultimately on external media There are two major categories of RAM: dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM) A DRAM chip contains transistors and capacitors, and data is stored as charges on the capacitors The charge must be replenished frequently, or it will be lost through discharge Replenishing is done automatically several hundred times per second An SRAM chip uses a flip-flop to store the data This gets rid of the need for constant replenishing of charge, but the tradeoff is that SRAM ICs require more elements than DRAM chips to store a given amount of data With any RAM chip, the data in it will vanish when power is removed, unless some provision is made for memory backup The most common means of memory backup is the use of a small cell or battery with a long shelf life Modern IC memories need so little current to store their data that a backup battery lasts as long in the circuit as it would on the shelf Memory that disappears when power is removed is called volatile memory If memory is retained when power is removed, it is nonvolatile Read Only By contrast to RAM chips, the data in a read-only memory (ROM) chip can be easily accessed, in whole or in part, but not easily written over A standard ROM chip is programmed at the factory This permanent programming is known as firmware But there are also ROM chips that you can program and reprogram yourself The data contents of ROM chips are generally nonvolatile That means a power failure is no cause for concern An erasable programmable ROM (EPROM) chip is an IC whose memory is of the read-only type, but that can be reprogrammed by a certain procedure It is more difficult to rewrite data in an EPROM than in a RAM; the usual process for erasure involves exposure to ultraviolet (UV) An EPROM IC can be recognized by the presence of a transparent window with a removable cover, through which the UV is focused to erase the data The IC must be taken from the circuit in which it is used, exposed to UV for several minutes, and then reprogrammed The data in some EPROM chips can be erased by electrical means Such an IC is called an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chip These do not have to be removed from the circuit for reprogramming.

Summary

The simplest way to repeat an action in AppleScript is to repeat the command for the action This is called hard-coding; it s considered simplistic by most programmers, but it works well for simple tasks, and there s no reason why you shouldn t use it when it meets your needs For example, if you need to create two new documents in TextEdit, you can use a tell block such as this:

I ve shown you a method to find all functional dependencies between attributes If you ve just read this chapter, or if you ve already tried the method once or twice, it may seem like a lot of work for little gain But once you get used to it, you ll find that this is very useful, and that the amount of work is less than it appears at first sight For starters, in a real situation, many dependencies will be immediately obvious if you know a bit about the subject matter, and it ll be equally obvious that there are no dependencies between many attributes There s no need to verify those with the domain expert (Though you should keep in mind that some companies may have a specific situation that deviates from the ordinary.

Refer to the text in this chapter if necessary A good score is at least 18 correct Answers are in the back of the book

If your script always needs TextEdit to create two new documents, this code works fine But if you need to make your code flexible for example, so that it can tell TextEdit to create different numbers of new documents as necessary, or to work through each of the open documents before creating a new document you can use loops to repeat actions instead

) Second, you ll find that if you start by testing the dependencies you suspect to be there, you ll quickly be able to divide the data over multiple relations with relatively few attributes each, thereby limiting the number of combinations to be tested And finally, by cleverly combining multiple tests into a single example, you can limit the number of examples you have to run by the domain expert This may not reduce the amount of work you have to do, but it does reduce the number of examples your domain expert has to assess and she ll love you for it! As a bonus, this method can be used to develop sample data for unit testing, which can improve the quality of the database schema and stored procedures.

A final note of warning there are some situations where, depending on the order you choose to do your tests, you might miss a dependency You can find them too, but they re beyond the scope of this chapter Fortunately this will only happen in cases where rare combinations of dependencies between attributes exist, so it s probably best not to worry too much about it..